This
service
provided by:
Return to ENTRI homepage | Return to ENTRI Thematic Guide
home page | Return to ENTRI Thematic Guide Section 3 home page
Biodiversity: Treaties, Environmental Indicators, and National
Responses
Biodiversity is the genetic variation within a species, and the diversity of
species and the ecosystems they inhabit (World Resource Institute, 1995). The
number and types of species inhabiting Earth have varied immensely during
geologic history. In part, these variations have been caused by the evolution
of new types of organisms and the elimination of others due to environmental
changes.
Direct exploitation and deliberate extermination also pose a serious threat to
biological diversity, particularly in East Africa and the North Sea where
species such as the Black Rhino and whales are being hunted to extinction.
Deliberate or accidental introduction of non-native species can also trigger
serious ecological imbalances and species elimination, particularly in isolated
environments, such as islands, where fixed boundaries tend to put native
species at greater risk.
Loss of species is significant in several respects. First, breaking of critical
links in the biological chain can disrupt the functioning of an entire
ecosystem and its biogeochemical cycles. This disruption may have significant
effects on larger scale processes. Second, loss of species can have impacts on
the organism pool from which medicines and pharmaceuticals can be derived.
Third, loss of species can result in loss of genetic material, which is needed
to replenish the genetic diversity of domesticated plants that are the basis of
world agriculture.
Reduced biodiversity influences ecosystem structure, including predation and
dominance, and diminishes the natural resources available to us (Asrar and
Dozier, 1994). The historical record indicates dramatic expansion and
contraction of habitats in response to past global climate changes. Today,
human activities play a considerable role in aiding or hindering habitat
response. Human activity has greatly accelerated change to the point that many
species cannot adequately cope. For instance, sea level increases in response
to global warming could dislocate estuaries, marsh, and near-shore ecosystems,
with the affected species' only recourse to adapt quickly or die. Land
management practices introduce patchiness or large-scale changes in habitats
and modify ecosystem function, including extinction, migration pathways, and
survival. The Landsat Pathfinder study indicated that the effect of
deforestation on biodiversity in the Amazon is greater than previously thought
(Skole and Tucker, 1993). The effect on regional hydrology and climatology
could prove even more significant.
NASA's Earth Science Enterprise, formerly Mission to Planet Earth
program, contributes significantly
to research activities that lead
to the preservation of biological diversity. Remote sensing data such as
Landsat TM scenes are used to create maps of current vegetation
and then predict habitat for species. The Gap Analysis
Project uses satellite imagery to create current
vegetation maps for states, on which the distribution of
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are overlaid, as well as
maps of land ownership.
Areas important to individual species, groups of species, or of high biological
diversity (species richness) can then be identified and the degree of
protection assessed. Gaps refer to those areas identified as being important
for maintaining biodiversity, but which are not protected through land
ownership or management. The goal of this type of analysis is to provide land
managers information on a local, state, and regional scale that can be used in
land use planning to better manage our natural resources and avoid/minimize
conflicts between land managers and resource users.
Images from Thematic Mapper (TM) offer the overall source of digital data for
Gap Analysis purposes because it has: (a) higher signal-to-noise ratio; (b)
higher precision of radiometric data; (c) higher cartographic accuracy; and (d)
higher spectral dimensionality. TM has become a standard for
construction of digital base maps upon which the different layers of spatial
data are mapped or projected (e.g., land cover, land management categories,
predicted distributions of vertebrate species) (Scott, et al. 1993).
International Treaty on Biological Diversity
Convention on Biological Diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (full text) was opened for signature at the
Earth Summit in Brazil on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December
1993. It contains three national level obligations: to conserve, to sustainably
use, and to share the benefits of biological diversity. The Convention
reflects the policy and scientific recommendations of a number of groups,
beginning with substantive inputs from the IUCN. Formal negotiations began in
November 1988 when UNEP convened a series of expert group meetings pursuant to
Governing Council decisions 14/26 and 15/34 of 1987. The initial sessions were
referred to as meetings of the Working Group of Experts on Biological
Diversity. By the summer of 1990, a new Sub-Working Group on Biotechnology was
established to prepare terms of reference on biotechnology transfer.
Linkages Between Treaty on Biological Diversity and Indicators
The discussion of key issues related to biodiversity has led to the
identification of key indicators for measuring the state of biological
diversity as it relates to the major concept areas such as protected area
maintenance, biosphere reserve maintenance, forest cover, wetland preservation,
genetic diversity and savannahs. Data for the identified indicators and their
relevance to international environmental treaties and national response
strategies are also discussed. This section also points to remote sensing data
relevant to the identified indicators. When exploring indicators that might
shed light on the conservation of biodiversity, it is essential to identify the
types of indicators needed on various scales to determine whether conservation
objectives are being met (The World Bank, 1995).
The pressure-state-response (PSR) framework is a convenient representation of the linkages among the
pressures exerted on the land by human activities (pressure), the change in
quality of the resource (state), and the response to these changes as society
attempts to release the pressure or to rehabilitate land which has been
degraded (response) (Dumanski, 1996). The PSR framework is used here to explain
the relationship among international treaties, key indicators, and national
response strategies. The pressure indicators such as population pressure and
percentage of forests cleared, and cropping intensity provide an estimate of
the pressures exerted by human activities that lead to loss of biodiversity.
State indicators reflect the conditions of the land as well as its resilience
to withstand change as a consequence of sector pressures. This may include
indicators which express changes in biological diversity (actual and
potential). The response mechanisms are normally achieved through direct
actions by society in evolving or adopting improved land management systems or
adopting biological conservation programs and policies.
Pressure Indicators
Population dynamics and distribution and areas of land clearance are the major
pressures leading to the loss of biological diversity.
Population dynamics and distribution
Population dynamics and distribution are indicators for understanding human
interactions with the environment and in considering possible responses to
global change. The National Research Council (NRC) has identified population
dynamics as one of five priority areas of research for the US Global Change
Research Program. It also pointed out the key role of georeferenced social data
in two other priority areas, improving the understanding of land use change and
assessing impacts, vulnerability, and adaptation to global changes (National
Research Council, 1994).
This indicator can be developed from SEDAC's population data products and
services: Integrated Population, Land Use, and Emissions Data for the U.S., an
archive of Census-related products, global population database, Gridded
Population of the World, and an interactive access to the U.S. Census Public
Microdata Samples (PUMS) for 1980 and 1990 through the Ulysses tabulation
system.
Areas of land clearance
Forestry practices and land use changes such as clearing native forest,
forest burning, and disturbance of soils during forest operations result in
significant loss of biodiversity . The areas of forests
permanently cleared each year therefore can
serve as an important indicator of pressure influencing greenhouse gas
emissions.
State Indicators
State indicators such as national protected areas, biosphere reserves, number
of species provide an indication of the wealth of biological diversity and its
surrounding habitats. The indicator such as Peters biological index is useful
in not only understanding the extent of biological diversity but also
providing
guidelines of conservation programs.
Peters biodiversity index
An easily defined surrogate indicator of total biodiversity (based on the
limited data available) developed by Charles Peters was used to assess West
Kalimantan's conservation priorities in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. This
indicator gives weights to species richness, endemism, and heterogeneity of the
surrounding landscape. The index is based on geographic information pertaining
to 2,610 geographic units, or polygons, about which there is some literature on
land-use characteristics for different habitat types and geographic information
system (GIS) analyses. Satellite imagery was used to identify the different
habitat types in West Kalimantan. Information on the estimated species richness
of these habitats (based on available inventory data) is multiplied by the area
of each habitat type (obtained from GIS analyses) to arrive at a habitat
diversity index. A neighborhood diversity index was also estimated to reflect
the importance of the biological richness of adjacent habitats. Finally, the
endemism adjustment factor was estimated to show the degree to which the
original vegetation had been disturbed. The sum of the habitat diversity and
neighborhood diversity indices was multiplied by the endemism adjustment factor
to yield a unique biodiversity ranking for each of the forty-five habitat types
identified.
The methodology used is summarized by the following equation:
Biodiversity index = (habitat diversity + neighborhood diversity) x endemism
adjustment factor where habitat diversity(i)i = log(SPPRICHiAi) and
neighborhood
diversityi = log(NiSPPRICHi ). SPPRICHi is the species richness of the habitat
type(i), Ai is the area of the habitat type(i), and N is the number of
adjacent
habitats.
National protected areas
Extent of nationally protected areas is an important indicator of the extent of habitat on which the
biological species depend for their survival. A protected area was defined at
the IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas as "an area of
land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of
biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and
managed through legal or other effective means" (IUCN, 1994). Protected areas
make a vital contribution to the conservation of the world's biological
resources. All Protected Areas combine natural areas in five IUCN management
categories:
- Category I--scientific reserves, and strict nature reserves--possess outstanding, representative ecosystems.
- Category II--national parks and provincial parks--are relatively large areas of national or international significance not materially altered by humans.
- Category III--natural monuments and natural landmarks--contain unique geological formations, special animals or plants, or unusual habitats.
- Category IV--managed nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries--are protected for specific purposes, such as conservation of a significant plant or animal species.
- Category V--protected landscapes and sea-scapes may be entirely natural or may include cultural landscapes.
Categories I and II are referred to as totally protected areas. Categories III to V are
referred to as partially protected areas.
The Ramsar
and World
Heritage Conventions and the UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserves
Programme cover 1000 sites around the world designated for
conservation purposes. As a measure to protect
biodiversity, the Convention on Biological Diversity emphasizes
the need for establishing a system of protected areas and taking
measures to promote environmentally sound development in areas
adjacent to protected areas (Article 8(a & e)).
Data/ Data Sources
- WRI provides data on percentage of nationally protected areas
- WRI provides data on number and extent of nationally protected areas
- Protected Areas Unit of the WCMC provides data on National Protection of
Natural Areas for 1993. WCMC has developed a Protected Areas Programme for some
10,000 of the larger protected areas. Their sources are varied and are freely
available. The remaining protected areas are also represented in digital map
form though as point references. The WCMC Protected Areas
Database
holds data on over 40,000 sites around the world designated for nature
conservation purposes.
- Country-level data on protected areas are also available. Vietnam
has 87 protected
areas that include national parks, nature reserves, historical sites, and
natural areas. Australian Public Lands and Protected Areas
Query retrieves
site information for more than 600 protected areas in Australia.
- WCMC provides 1993
UN List of National Parks and Protected Areas.
Biosphere reserves
As a state indicator, the number and extent of biosphere reserves
provides an early warning to environmental stresses.
Biosphere reserves are representative of terrestrial and coastal environments
that have been internationally recognized under the Man and Biosphere Programme
of the UNESCO. Fully-functioning biosphere reserves perform three main roles:
(a) conservation of ecosystems and biota of particular interest; (b)
establishment of demonstration areas for ecologically sustainable land and
resource use; and (c) provision of logistic support for research, monitoring,
education and training related to conservation and sustainability issues
(Francis, 1995). This requires cooperation among resource managers, scientists,
and local residents on activities directed towards priority issues of concern
for each biosphere reserve.
Biosphere reserves provide sites for the monitoring of long-range transport of
atmospheric pollutants, or for "integrated environmental monitoring" to
correlate ecosystemic changes with pollutant loadings. They have a potentially
valuable role in monitoring for climatic change. The principles underlying
biodiversity reserves form the basis for the development of Environmental
Cooperative Reserves (ECS) which in turn contribute to: (1) identifying and
defining ecosystem effects resulting from environmental changes; (2) measuring
ecosystem responses to control measures; (3) providing an early warning system
to identify new stresses; and (4) providing the scientific basis for the
development of environmental indicators (Roberts-Pichette, 1995). The Ramsar
and World Heritage
Conventions and the UNESCO-MAB
Biosphere Reserves Programme cover 1000 sites around the world designated for
conservation purposes.
The
International Conference on Biosphere Reserves at the
invitation of the Spanish authorities in Seville (Spain) from 20
to 25 March 1995 was organized to enable an evaluation of the
experience in implementing the 1984
Action Plan, a reflection on the role for biosphere reserves in the context of
the 21st century (which gave rise to the vision statement) and the elaboration
of a draft Statutory Framework for the World Network.
Data/ Data Source
- WRI provides data on number and area of biosphere reserves.
- MAB Fauna
Bioreserve Database provides data on the size of biosphere
reserves and their vertebrate faunal resources such as fish,
birds, amphibians, mammals, and reptiles.
- EuroMAB
Access
is a directory of the 175 biosphere reserves in North America and Europe that
are part of EuroMAB.
- Protected Areas Unit of the WCMC provides data on National
Protection of Natural Areas for 1993.
Forests and woodland
The current extent of all forests and woodland indicates the wealth of forestry species. Percentage change since
1981-93 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) maps allow comparisons of
the spatial and temporal variability in the amount and condition of vegetation.
Under the International
Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA) member countries gave a
formal undertaking to achieve sustainable management of their own
forests by the year 2000. Many countries
have already made voluntary commitments toward forest goals under international
instruments such as the Convention on Biodiversity and the ITTA.
Data/ data source
- Data on extent of all forests
NDVI images are computed by the NASA GSFC, using data from the AVHRR
satellite instrument of the NOAA. Africa-wide NDVI images with 7.6 km
resolution are available from NASA on a decadal (10-day) basis throughout
the
year.
Wetland Preservation
Indicators such as number and area of wetlands of international importance,
characteristics and extent of the Nation's wetlands, and rate of wetlands loss
and water quality changes provide a measure of
the wealth of wetlands which are the habitats for wildlife, game, and other
wetland species. According to the World Wildlife Fund, wetlands are the second
most endangered habitat worldwide. (The most endangered are tropical
forests). In the USA, for example, there were about 87 million hectares in
pre-Colombian times and there are now around 42 million. Although wetlands are
threatened by manifestations of climate change such as sea-level rise their
biggest enemy is man. The national indicators reflect the range of
estimated probabilities (expressed as a frequency of occurrence) of a species
occurring in wetlands versus non wetland across the entire distribution of the
species (National Wetlands Inventory, 1995). A frequency, for example, of
67%-99% (Facultative Wetland) means that 67%-99% of sample plots containing the
species randomly selected across the range of the species would be wetland.
Wetlands are often said to be properly functioning when measurements, such as
suspended sediment loads, nutrient concentrations, or surface water pH, fall
within acceptable ranges. However, it is not known if different types of
wetlands 'function' differently with respect to these variables, or how
temporal fluctuations of these variables affect overall wetland function.
Therefore, the Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC) proposed
to evaluate the potential of using aquatic insect communities as integrative
biological
indicators of wetland state.
The USGS has begun a program
on
Wetlands
and Water Quality Change Detection in San Francisco Bay Ecosystem
Using Remotely Sensed Images. This
program has contributed to the understanding of pristine wetlands, water
quality, and their changes over the past 150 years. Such information is needed
by ecosystem managers trying to determine the recent rate of wetlands loss and
water quality changes. The main focus of this project is to generate and
analyze digital 'change images' that will show, both visually and
statistically, how much and where changes have occurred in the San Francisco
Bay Ecosystem (Chavez et al. 1995).
Any party to the Convention on Wetlands of Importance Especially as
Waterfowl Habitat agrees to establish a suitable
wetlands within its territory for inclusion in a List of Wetlands of
International Importance.
Data/ Data Source
Biological species
Total number of known species
(includes all, endemic and threatened species in each of the
species types--birds, higher plants, and fish) and the number of
species per 10,000 square kilometer
provide a relative estimate for comparing numbers among
countries of differing size. Birds are considered good indicator
species because they occur in most land habitats throughout the
world and are sensitive to environmental change. "CITES reporting
requirement met" refers to the
percentage of years for which a country has submitted an annual
report to the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
Fauna (CITES). This indicator helps to monitor how CITES
member countries implement the prohibition of commercial
international trade in endangered species.
The Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) identifies ecosystems, species
and genomes important for conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity [Article 7(a) and Annex I].
The CBD emphasizes the need to rehabilitate and restore
ecosystems and promote recovery
of threatened species [Article 8].
Data/ Data Source
- WRI provides data on all, endemic, and threatened species in each of the
species types--birds, higher plants, and fish.
- WRI provides data on all, endemic, and threatened species in each of the
species types--birds, higher plants, and fish per 10,000 square kilometer.
- Both historical and detailed data on taxonomy and distribution, are more
extensive for birds. The World Bank and Bird Life International are presently
experimenting with a joint exercise to exploit these advantages.
- WRI provides data on the percentage of CITES reporting requirement.
Response indicators
State indicators such as national protected areas can also be used as
response indicators to monitor national programs and policies for conserving
biodiversity.
National protected areas
Percentage of nationally protected areas, as a biological indicator, is
a surrogate measure for monitoring national governments' response towards
preserving their biological wealth by the establishment of parks and reserves.
Currently, 6 percent of the world's land area, excluding Antarctica, is either
strictly or partially protected (World Resources Institute, 1994).
National policies and programs in order to preserve biodiversity are the key
response indicators. For instance,
the government of Uganda
has launched a national policy for the conservation and
management of wetland resources. In Australia, implementation of the Ramsar
Convention is coordinated through a
network of State/Territory officers under the auspices of the
Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation
(Ministerial) Council. Bill Phillips of the Australian Nature
Conservation Agency convenes this network and also has
responsibility for managing the
National Wetlands Program (Australian Nature Conservation Agency, 1995).
On-ground responsibility for implementing Ramsar in Australia rests primarily
with the respective State and Territory governments. With the exception of land
under Commonwealth jurisdiction Ramsar sites are nominated by the Federal
Government at the request of the responsible State or Territory Government. In
doing so, the State and Territory Governments undertake to manage the sites in
a way which will maintain their special ecological values. As Australia
prepares to host the 1996 Ramsar Conference, it is hoped all State and
Territories will request the Federal Government to nominate new Wetlands of
International Importance. National Wetlands
Newsletter has further
discussion of Australian national response to the Ramsar
Convention.
The
Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands Conservation Project, an IUCN field
project based in Nguru, Jigawa State, Nigeria, aims to achieve
sustainable development
of the Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands for the benefit of current and future generations
of people and for the conservation of wildlife both within the wetlands and the
surrounding dryland.